WATER RESOURCES IN COLOMBIA

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  Water resources management in Colombia
  
  
  Tomado de Wikipedia
  
  
  For Forestry Students
  
  
  Withdrawals by sector 2000/2001           
  Domestic: 59%
  Agriculture: 37%
  Industry: 4%
  Renewable water resources      2,132 km3 (1977–2001)
  Surface water produced internally         2,112 km3
  Groundwater recharge 510 km3
  Overlap shared by surface water and groundwater       510 km3
  Renewable water resources per capita 49,017 m3 per year (2006)
  Hydropower generation              81%
  There is a long and well established framework for water resources management in Colombia. The Environment Ministry and up to 33 Regional Authorities (the first one was created in 1954), are in charge of water resources management and policies at the national and regional and watershed level, respectively. Other sectoral ministries are in charge of water demand for energy, water supply and sanitation and water for irrigation.
  Water resources availability per capita in Colombia was 45,408 cubic meters in 2007, way above the world’s average of 8,209 in the same year and is particularly prone to flooding and landslides. Climate Change is expected to highly affect highland Andean ecosystems, especially moorlands, due to increase in temperatures and aquifer-based freshwater supplies in insular and coastal areas due to sea level increases and saline intrusion.
  Despite the developed legal and institutional framework for water resources management in Colombia, many challenges remain, including: (i) the consideration of water as an abundant resource affect the implementation of certain policies; (ii) fragmentation on water resources management responsibilities and lack of a consistent national strategy; (iii) some lack of coordination between the Environmental Ministry and the Regional Authorities; (iv) lack of capacities at the regional level; (v) governability challenges due to social and environmental issues such as deforestation, illegal crops, urban sprawl…etc.
  Water management history and recent developments
  During the 20th Century, Colombian Government focused on increasing knowledge on natural resources as well as developing law and institutions to regulate their uses.  For example, in 1952, the Government created the Division for Natural Resources, under the Environment Ministry, aimed at managing land, forestry and fisheries. In 1953, the Government enacted the Decree 1371, also known as the Sanitation Code, which included general rules to control residual water.
  In 1954, the Government, following the model based on the Tennessee Valley Authority, established in the US in 1933, created the Cauca Regional Authority with the objective of managing land and water resources in a multisectoral and integrated way.[1] For the next 50 years, up to 33 Regional Authorities (Corporaciones Autonomas Regionales –CARs) will be created all over Colombia each of them representing the highest authority for natural resources management, including water resources, within their territory and being an integral part of the National Environmental System in Colombia.
  In 1968, the government created the National Institute of Renewable Natural Resources and Environment (INDERENA), encompassing the Division for Natural Resources and the Magdalena and Sinu Regional Authorities. During the 1970s, there was an intense institutional development with the creation of numerous sectoral entities such as the Meteorological Service in charge of analyzing meteorological and hydrological data, the Geographic Institute Agustin Godazzi in charge of land management, INGEOMINAS in charge of groundwater resources management, and Colombian Agricultural Institute in charge of assessing the environmental impacts of fertilizers and pesticides, among others. In addition, Regional Authorities advanced environmental tasks related to water and forestry management. For example, the Regional Authority of Cali and Yumbo was the first regional authority with the equipment and regulation necessary to control industrial discharges on water bodies.
  In addition, the government together with INDERENA and the Food and Agriculture Organization collaborated during the 1970s in the creating of the National Code for Renewable Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, also known as the Natural Resources Code, which was finally enacted with Decree 2811 of 1974.
  During the 1980s, Natural Resources Code and the 1979 National Sanitation Law were developed through numerous regulations such as the Watershed Decree 2857 of 1981, Atmospheric Releases Decrees 02 of 1982 and 2200 of 1983, and the Water Quality Decree 1594 of 1984.
  The new constitution of 1991 included 49 articles for environmental and natural resources protection and was considered for some experts as the “Environmental Constitution.” Finally, Law 99 of 1993 established the current institutional framework in Colombia, in particular it: (i) turned the INDERENA into the Ministry of Environment (ii) created the National Environmental System (iii) established the Regional Authorities as the institutions in charge of implementing national policies and regulations; (iv) finally, included five research institutions into the National Environmental System, namely:
  Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies
  Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute
  José Benito Vives de Andréis Marine and Coastal Research Institute
  Amazonic Institute of Scientific Research
  John von Neumann Environmental Research Institute of the Pacific

LOS PREFIJOS MIS -OVER - DIS

CONOCER LOS PREFIJOS ES MUY ÚTIL PARA APRENDER A LEER COMPRENSIVAMENTE- EMPECEMOS POR ESTOS TRES

Los prefijos son vocablos agregadas al comienzo de sustantivos, adjetivos, pronombres de pertenencia, adverbios y verbos, con el propósito de obtener un significado diferente.

Acá están algunos prefijos utilizados en el idioma inglés:

El prefijo Mis

Hacer algo incorrectamente, equivocado, errado, mal. Generalmente acompaña sin guión a verbos

print/misprint = imprimir/cometer errata

represent/misrepresent = representar/falsificar

take/mistake = tomar/error

lead/mislead = liderado/mal liderado

treat/mistreat = tratar/tratar mal

judge/misjudge = juzgar/juzgar mal

interpret/misinterpret = interpretar/mal interpretar

inform/misinform = informar/desinforme

handle/mishandle = manejo/mal manejo

count/miscount = contar/error de cuenta

conduct/misconduct = conducta/mala conducta

chance/mischance = oportunidad/fatalidad

calculate/miscalculate = calcular/calcular mal

behave/misbehave = comportarse/portarse mal

shapen/misshapen = forma/deformado

to read/misread = leer/leer mal

lead/misleading = guiar/descarrilar

conception/misconception = concepción/erradaconcepción

use/misuse = uso/mal uso

Rich people mistreat poor people = (La) gente rica maltrata  a la  gente pobre

El prefijo Over

Over significa sobre, demasiado, excesivo, más de :

charge/overcharge = carga/sobrecarga

time/overtime = tiempo,vez/horas extras, sobre tiempo

heat/overheat = calor/sobrecalentamiento

grown/overgrown = crecer/sobrecrecer

all/overall = todo/sobretodo, abrigo

paid/overpaid = pagar/sobre pago

pass/overpass = paso/paso elevado

sleep/oversleep = dormir/dormir demasiado

Overall, how satisfied are you with the handling of this particular case? = ¿En general, cómo satisfecho estan ustedes con el manejo de este caso particular?

El prefijo Dis

El prefijo Dis es una negación que acompaña frecuentemente a sustantivos. Significa des, in :

infectant/disinfectants = infectante/desinfectante

arm/disarms = armado/desarmado

honesty/dishonesty = honesto/desonesto

ability/disability = habilidad/inhabilidad

assemble/disassemble = montar/desmontar

proportionate/disproportionate = proporcionado/desproporcionado

agrement/disagreement = convenir/desavenir

appear/disappear = aparecer/desaparecer

obey/disobey = obedecer/desobedecer

integrate/disintegrate = integrado/desintegrado

obedient/disobedient = obediente/desobediente

honor/dishonor = honor/deshonor

RAINFORESST

Rainforest

WIKIPEDIA

Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with definitions based on a minimum normal annual rainfall of 1750–2000 mm (68–78 inches)[citation needed]. The monsoon trough, alternatively known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earth's tropical rainforests. Around 40% to 75% of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. It has been estimated that there may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called the "jewels of the Earth" and the "world's largest pharmacy", because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there. Rainforests are also responsible for 28% of the world's oxygen turnover, sometimes misnamed oxygen production, processing it through photosynthesis from carbon dioxide and consuming it through respiration.  The undergrowth in some areas of a rainforest can be restricted by poor penetration of sunlight to ground level. If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned, the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense, tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees, called a jungle.  There are two types of rainforest, tropical rainforest and temperate rainforest.

Tropical rainforests   are characterized in two words: warm and wet. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in).

Many of the world's rainforests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough, also known as the intertropical convergence zone. Tropical rainforests are rainforests in the tropics, found in the equatorial zone (between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn). Tropical rainforest is present in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and northeastern Australia), Sri Lanka, sub-Saharan Africa from Cameroon to the Congo (Congo Rainforest), South America (e.g. the Amazon Rainforest), Central America (e.g. Bosawás, southern Yucatán Peninsula-El Peten-Belize-Calakmul), and on many of the Pacific Islands (such as Hawaiʻi). Tropical rainforests have been called the "Earth's lungs", although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis.

Canopy layer

The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species, suggesting that perhaps half of all life on Earth could be found there. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon the Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles."

Flora and fauna

More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in the rainforest.  Rainforests support a very broad array of fauna, including mammals, reptiles, birds and invertebrates. Mammals may include primates, felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes, turtles, chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae. Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on the decomposing remains of plants and animals. Many rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere.

Soils

Despite the growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite. Most trees have roots near the surface, because there are insufficient nutrients below the surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off and beginning a process of soil erosion. Eventually streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible.

Effect on global climate

A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide. On a global scale, long-term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have a small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed. Human induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide, as do other factors, whether human-induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought. Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict a large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought, forest dieback and the subsequent release more carbon dioxide. Five million years from now, the Amazon rainforest may long since have dried and transformed itself into savannah, killing itself in the progress (changes such as this may happen even if all human deforestation activity ceases overnight). The descendants of our known animals may adapt to the dry savannah of the former Amazonian rainforest and thrive in the new, warmer temperatures.

Human uses

Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest.  Also, plant derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment.

Deforestation

Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking.  Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years)[26] due to the removal of habitat with destruction of the rainforests.

The forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace.  Almost 90% of West Africa's rainforest has been destroyed. Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest. At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years. According to Rainforest Rescue, a main reason for the increasing deforestation rate especially in Indonesia is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet the growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels. In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia, the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world’s palm oil.  Several countries, notably Brazil, have declared their deforestation a national emergency. Amazon deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data. Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60% of the Amazon Rainforest by 2030, says a new report from WWF.

SELF ESTEEM

Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall emotional evaluation of his or her own worth. It is a judgement of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am competent", "I am worthy") and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame.

Self-esteem is a disposition that a person has which represents their judgements of their own worthiness,  happiness. According to Branden, self-esteem is the sum of self-confidence (a feeling of personal capacity) and self-respect (a feeling of personal worth). It exists as a consequence of the implicit judgement that every person has of their ability to face life's challenges, to understand and solve problems, and their right to achieve happiness, and be given respect. Self-esteem is affected when individuals know or feel that people of higher authority is watching them . Individuals feel sad and/or distressed when they know their self is inconsistent with what the world expects as the model individual.

Types

Positive:

People with a healthy level of self-esteem

·         Firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend them even when finding opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light of experience.

·         Are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting their own judgment, and not feeling guilty when others don't like their choice.

·         Do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor about what could happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live in the present intensely.

·         Fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help when they need it

·         Consider themselves equal in dignity to others, rather than inferior or superior, while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige or financial standing.

·         Take for granted that they are an interesting and valuable person for others, at least for those with whom they have a friendship.

·         Resist manipulation, collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient.

·         Admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative, revealing those drives to others only when they choose.

·         Are able to enjoy a great variety of activities.

·          Are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted social rules, and claim no right or desire to prosper at others' expense.

·         Can work toward finding solutions and voice discontent without belittling themselves or others when challenges arise.

Low self-esteem

Low self-esteem can result from various factors, including genetic factors, physical appearance or weight, socioeconomic status, or peer pressure or bullying.

A person with low self-esteem may show some of the following characteristics:

    Heavy self-criticism and dissatisfaction.

    Hypersensitivity to criticism with resentment against critics and feelings of being attacked.

    Chronic indecision and an exaggerated fear of mistakes.

    Excessive will to please and unwillingness to displease any petitioner.

    Perfectionism, which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved.

    Neurotic guilt, dwelling on and exaggerating the magnitude of past mistakes.

    Floating hostility and general defensiveness and irritability without any proximate cause.

    Pessimism and a general negative outlook

    Envy, invidiousness, or general resentment

    Sees temporary setbacks as permanent, intolerable conditions

When given feedback, individuals with low self-esteem often take it personally, and can be devastated by it. Low self-esteem individuals are very critical of themselves and depend on the approval of others for their own evaluation of self-worthiness. They believe that a person's approval of them is dependent on their performance, whether it be academic, relationship, etc. People with low self-esteem view their likeability in terms of successes: others will accept them if they succeed but will not if they fail.

False stereotypes

Self-esteem as comfort

For a person with low self-esteem – or "wrong" self-esteem, according to Branden's terminology – any positive stimulus or incentive will make him feel comfortable, or, at most, better with respect to himself/herself for just some time. Therefore, possessions, sex, success, or physical appearance, by themselves, will produce comfort, or a false and ephemeral development of self-esteem, but they won't really strengthen confidence and respect to oneself.

Self-esteem and culture

Branden has claimed that "self-esteem can be better understood as a sort of spiritual achievement, that is, a victory in psyche's evolution" ] More recent studies demonstrate both a correlation between self-esteem and life satisfaction, and that such levels of correlation are to an extent culturally relative.

Importance   Abraham Maslow states that psychological health is not possible unless the essential core of the person is fundamentally accepted, loved and respected by others and by her or his self. Self-esteem allows people to face life with more confidence, benevolence and optimism, and thus easily reach their goals and self-actualize.

BIPOLAR DISORDER

Bipolar disorder? 
WIKIPEDIA

Bipolar disorder (also known as manic depression) causes serious shifts in mood, energy, thinking, and behavior–from the highs of mania on one extreme, to the lows of depression on the other. More than just a fleeting good or bad mood, the cycles of bipolar disorder last for days, weeks, or months. And unlike ordinary mood swings, the mood changes of bipolar disorder are so intense that they interfere with your ability to function. During a manic episode, a person might impulsively quit a job, charge up huge amounts on credit cards, or feel rested after sleeping two hours. During a depressive episode, the same person might be too tired to get out of bed and full of self-loathing and hopelessness over being unemployed and in debt. The causes of bipolar disorder aren’t completely understood, but it often runs in families. The first manic or depressive episode of bipolar disorder usually occurs in the teenage years or early adulthood. The symptoms can be subtle and confusing, so many people with bipolar disorder are overlooked or misdiagnosed–resulting in unnecessary suffering. But with proper treatment and support, you can lead a rich and fulfilling life.

Myths and Facts About Bipolar Disorder

Myth: People with bipolar disorder can’t get better or lead a normal life.

Fact: Many people with bipolar disorder have successful careers, happy family lives, and satisfying relationships. Living with bipolar disorder is challenging. But with treatment, healthy coping skills, and a solid support system, you can live fully while managing your symptoms.

Myth: People with bipolar disorder swing back and forth between mania and depression.

Fact: Some people alternate between extreme episodes of mania and depression, but most are depressed more often than they are manic. Mania may also be so mild that it goes unrecognized. People with bipolar disorder can also go for long stretches without symptoms.

Myth: Bipolar disorder only affects mood.

Fact: Bipolar disorder also affects your energy level, judgment, memory, concentration, appetite, sleep patterns, sex drive, and self-esteem. Additionally, bipolar disorder has been linked to anxiety, substance abuse, and health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, migraines, and high blood pressure.

Myth: Aside from taking medication, there is nothing you can do to control bipolar disorder.

Fact: While medication is the foundation of bipolar disorder treatment, therapy and self-help strategies also play important roles. You can help control your symptoms by exercising regularly, getting enough sleep, eating right, monitoring your moods, keeping stress to a minimum, and surrounding yourself with supportive people.

Signs and symptoms of bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder can look very different in different people. The symptoms vary widely in their pattern, severity, and frequency. Some people are more prone to either mania or depression, while others alternate equally between the two types of episodes. Some have frequent mood disruptions, while others experience only a few over a lifetime. There are four types of mood episodes in bipolar disorder: mania, hypomania, depression, and mixed episodes. Each type of bipolar disorder mood episode has a unique set of symptoms.

Signs and symptoms of mania

Common signs and symptoms of mania include:

• Feeling unusually “high” and optimistic OR extremely irritable
• Unrealistic, grandiose beliefs about one’s abilities or powers
• Sleeping very little, but feeling extremely energetic
• Talking so rapidly that others can’t keep up
• Racing thoughts; jumping quickly from one idea to the next
• Highly distractible, unable to concentrate
• Impaired judgment and impulsiveness
• Acting recklessly without thinking about the consequences
• Delusions and hallucinations (in severe cases)

The different faces of bipolar disorder

• Bipolar I Disorder (mania or a mixed episode) – The classic manic-depressive form of the illness, characterized by at least one manic episode or mixed episode. Usually—but not always—Bipolar I Disorder also involves at least one episode of depression.
• Bipolar II Disorder (hypomania and depression) – In Bipolar II disorder, the person doesn’t experience full-blown manic episodes. Instead, the illness involves episodes of hypomania and severe depression.
• Cyclothymia (hypomania and mild depression) – Cyclothymia is a milder form of bipolar disorder. It consists of cyclical mood swings. However, the symptoms are less severe than full-blown mania or depression.

Self-help for bipolar disorder

While dealing with bipolar disorder isn’t always easy, it doesn’t have to run your life. But in order to successfully manage bipolar disorder, you have to make smart choices. Your lifestyle and daily habits have a significant impact on your moods. Read on for ways to help yourself:

• Get educated. Learn as much as you can about bipolar disorder. The more you know, the better you’ll be at assisting your own recovery.
• Keep stress in check. Avoid high-stress situations, maintain a healthy work-life balance, and try relaxation techniques such as meditation, yoga, or deep breathing.
• Seek support. It’s important to have people you can turn to for help and encouragement. Try joining a support group or talking to a trusted friend.
• Make healthy choices. Healthy sleeping, eating, and exercising habits can help stabilize your moods. Keeping a regular sleep schedule is particularly important.
• Monitor your moods. Keep track of your symptoms and watch for signs that your moods are swinging out of control so you can stop the problem before it starts.

Bipolar disorder and suicide

The depressive phase of bipolar disorder is often very severe, and suicide is a major risk factor. In fact, people suffering from bipolar disorder are more likely to attempt suicide than those suffering from regular depression. Furthermore, their suicide attempts tend to be more lethal.

The risk of suicide is even higher in people with bipolar disorder who have frequent depressive episodes, mixed episodes, a history of alcohol or drug abuse, a family history of suicide, or an early onset of the disease.

The warning signs of suicide include:

Talking about death, self-harm, or suicide Feeling hopeless or helpless Feeling worthless or like a burden to others

Acting recklessly, as if one has a “death wish” Putting affairs in order or saying goodbye Seeking out weapons or pills that could be used to commit suicide